Nuclear Power in South Africa
(Updated 19 February 2010)
- South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity.
- South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984.
- Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong, but financial constraints apply.
- Construction of a demonstration Pebble Bed Modular Reactor has been delayed.
Electricity consumption in South Africa has been growing rapidly since 1980 and the country is part of the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP), with extensive interconnections. Total installed generating capacity in the SAPP countries is 54.7 GWe, of which around 80% is South African1, mostly coal-fired, and largely under the control of the state utility Eskom.
Eskom supplies about 95% of South Africa's electricity and approximately 45% of Africa's. Of its total installed net capacity of 40.5 GWe (44.2 GWe gross), coal-fired stations account for 34.3 GWe and nuclear 1.8 GWe2. Early in 2008, demand in South Africa was uncomfortably close to thisa. In 2008, Eskom power stations produced 230.0 billion kWh (TWh) of electricity (out of total South African electricity production of 239.5 TWh), of which the Koeberg nuclear plant generated 12.7 TWh – about 5.3% of total South African generation3.
Over the five years to March 2013, Eskom is spending R385 billion (around US$ 50 billion) on new capacity – mainly coal- and gas-fired plants, as well as on returning mothballed coal-fired stations to service. Eskom says the country needs 40 GWe of new generation by 2025, bringing its total capacity to 80 GWe. In addition, Eskom expects to save around 8 GWe over this period through its demand-side management initiative. About half of the new capacity was intended to be nuclear, but this is now in doubt.
Operating South African power reactors
| Reactors |
Type |
Net capacity |
First power |
| Koeberg 1 |
PWR |
900 MWe |
1984 |
| Koeberg 2 |
PWR |
900 MWe |
1985 |
| Total (2) |
|
1800 MWe |
|
Nuclear industry development in South Africa
South Africa's main coal reserves are concentrated in Mpumalanga in the northeast, while much of the load is on the coast near Cape Town and Durban. Moving either coal or electricity long distance is inefficient, so it was decided in the mid-1970s to build some 1800 MWe of nuclear capacity at Koeberg near Cape Town.
The Koeberg plant was built by Framatome (now Areva) and commissioned in 1984-85. It is owned and operated by Eskom and has twin 900 MWe pressurised water reactors (PWR) the same as those providing most of France's electricity.
While there had been no intention to build further power stations of this type, the government announced early in 2006 that it was considering building a further conventional nuclear plant, possibly at Koeberg, to boost supplies in the Cape province.
Early in 2007 the Eskom board approved a plan to double generating capacity to 80 GWe by 2025, including construction of 20 GWe of new nuclear capacity so that nuclear contribution to power would rise from 5% to more than 25% and coal's contribution would fall from 87% to below 70%. The new program would start with up to 4 GWe of PWR capacity to be built from about 2010, with the first unit commissioned in 2016. The environmental assessment process for the so-called 'Nuclear-1' project considering five sites, and selection of technology was to follow in 2008. Areva's EPR and Westinghouse AP1000 were short-listed. Areva headed a consortium of South African engineering group Aveng, the French construction group Bouygues and EDF which submitted a bid to supply two 1600 MWe EPR units. Westinghouse matched this with a bid of three 1134 MWe AP1000 units. The Westinghouse-led consortium includes The Shaw Group and the South African engineering firm Murray & Roberts.
Areva and Westinghouse also offered to build the full 20 GWe – with a further ten large EPR units or 17 AP1000 units by 2025. This would be coupled with wider assistance for the local nuclear industry, in the Westinghouse case including development of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (Westinghouse is an investor in the PBMR company and is sponsoring the design in the USA – see section on PBMR below).
However, in December 2008, Eskom announced that it would not proceed with either of the bids from Areva and Westinghouse, due to lack of finance, and the government confirmed a delay of several years4.
PBMR
Since 1993, Eskom (in collaboration with others since 1999b) has been developing the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). It is a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR), for both electricity generation (through a steam turbine or direct cycle) and process heat applications. From 1999 to 2009, the South African government, Westinghouse, Eskom and the Industrial Development Corporation of South Africa had invested R7 billion (about US$ 900 million) in the project.
The PBMR draws on well-proven German expertise and aims for a step change in safety, economics and proliferation resistance. The concept had been for a 400 MWt (165 MWe) helium-cooled and graphite-moderated reactor with a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine generatorc. However, in 2009 plans changed to the more conventional steam cycle, and also a much smaller unit, delivering less power – 200 MWt (80 MWe) – but presenting less technological challenged,6. A Demonstration Power Plant (DPP) at Koeberg is planned but the decision to focus on the 200 MWt design has indefinitely delayed the construction schedulee. In addition, a lack of financing is threatening to derail the project7.
The PBMR has a vertical steel reactor pressure vessel which contains and supports a metallic core barrel, which in turn supports the cylindrical pebble fuel core. This core is surrounded on the side by an outer graphite reflector and on top and bottom by graphite structures which provide similar upper and lower neutron reflection functions. Vertical borings in the side reflector are provided for the reactivity control elements. Some 360,000 fuel pebbles (silicon carbide-coated 9.6% enriched uranium dioxide particles encased in graphite spheres of 60 mm diameter) cycle through the reactor continuously (about six times each) until they are expended after about three years. This means that a reactor will require 12 total fuel loads in its design lifetime.
A pebble fuel plant at Pelindaba is planned. Meanwhile, in December 2008, PBMR’s pilot fuel plant manufactured 9.6% enriched fuel particles, which were shipped to the USA for testing at the Idaho National Laboratory. In August 2009, PBMR (Pty) shipped 16 graphite spheres (containing 9.6%-enriched fuel particles) to Russia for irradiation tests to demonstrate the fuel’s integrity under reactor conditions. The irradiation tests, which will be conducted by the Institute of Nuclear Materials in Zarechny near Ekaterinburg, are the final step in the development of the fuel for the PBMR demonstration unit.
In February 2010, PBMR (Pty) signed an agreement with Japan's Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) to "explore cooperation to enable the construction of the first PBMR reactor" and to conduct R&D activities for the 200 MWt design when a project has been identified. The announcement stated that the latest design "is aimed at steam process heat applications operating at 720°C, which provides the basis for penetrating the nuclear heat market as a viable alternative for carbon-burning, high-emission heat sources."8 MHI has been involved in the project since 2001, having done the basic design and R&D of the helium-driven turbo generator system and core barrel assembly, the major components of the 400 MWt direct-cycle design.
In the USA, the company in a consortium with Westinghouse and The Shaw Group is planning to submit a design certification application for the reactor, and to bid for the US Department of Energy's Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) project at the Idaho National Laboratory. The NGNP project is focused ultimately on nuclear-powered thermochemical hydrogen production. PBMR (Pty) said that progress on the NGNP project contributed to its decision to focus on a process heat plant, rather than a direct-coupled electricity generation plant. The 200 MWt PBMR can use standard 'off-the-shelf' steam components, reducing timescales and cost and lowering technological risk relative to the 400 MWt Brayton cycle PBMR. Other potential process heat applications include synfuels production with SASOL, oil production from Canadian tar sands, and desalination.
PBMR (Pty) has proceeded with some Chinese collaboration, involving the similar HTR-PM project there. Since early 2009 they are even more similar, in that PBMR is now planning to use the conventional steam cycle, as is the initial HTR-PM units. Startup of the first HTR-PM is planned for about 2014. An initial agreement between PBMR (Pty) and Chinergy Co. of Beijing was announced in March 2005. This agreement was for cooperation on the demonstration projects and subsequent commercialisation. In March 2009, a new agreement was signed between PBMR and Chinergy and the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) at Tsinghua University near Beijing. The small operating HTR-10 research reactor at Tsinghua University is the basis of the 250 MWt (105 MWe) HTR-PM reactor (one 210 MWe module consisting of twin reactor units driving a single steam turbine), which also derives from the earlier German development.
Uranium mining in South Africa
Uranium production in South Africa has generally been a by-product of gold or copper mining. In 1951, a company was formed to exploit the uranium-rich slurries from gold mining and in 1967 this function was taken over by Nuclear Fuels Corporation of South Africa (Nufcor), which in 1998 became a subsidiary of AngloGold Ltd. It produces over 600 tonnes U3O8 per year from uranium slurries trucked in from various gold mines and Palabora copper mine. In May 2009 AngloGold announced plans to construct a new uranium recovery plant at its Kopanang mine to lift production to 900 t/yr from 2012.
Dominion Reefs
In 2006, Uranium Onef obtained its mining right for the Dominion Reefs project, 150 km southwest of Johannesburg. Production commenced early in 2007 and was planned to increase to 1730 t/yr U3O8 by 2011. Production cost was earlier expected to be US$ 14.50/lb U3O8 from the conglomerate reefs to 500 metres depth, but evidently increased well beyond this. The first sales contract for 680 tonnes was announced in November 2006. Production in 2007 was 78 tonnes and that for 2008 was 86 tonnes U3O8, reflecting slower and more difficult underground development than anticipated. A small amount of uranium was purchased from Australia in 2008 to meet sales commitments. Dominion has indicated resources of 51,000 tonnes U3O8 at 0.063% and inferred resources of 62,800 tonnes U3O8 at 0.036%. Within these, reserves however are only 14,240 tonnes at 0.077% and US$ 46.50/lb production cost. The mine was closed in October 2008 due to a labour dispute coupled with power shortages and increased project costs in the context of lower uranium spot prices. Uranium One then announced the mine would be put on care and maintenance pending a possible sale.
Ryst Kuil
In February 2007, UraMin Inc increased its stake in the Ryst Kuil uranium project in the central Karoo Basin on the border of East and West Cape provinces to 74%. The company was then taken over by Areva to become Areva Resources Southern Africa. The deposit was discovered by Esso in the 1970s. Some 19,000 tonnes U3O8 resources (16,000 tU) are estimated on historic basis at 0.1% grade, and two further leases under application will lift this to 29,000 tonnes (24,600 tU). Mine production of 1350 t U3O8 per year was projected by the end of 2009 but this has been delayed. A full feasibility study is being carried out.
Ezulwini
First Uranium Corp of Canada, has built a US$ 55 million uranium processing plant at Ezulwini mine, which has 3200 tU in measured and indicated resources and 85,000 tU inferred resources. The main part of the plant was completed and the first uranium produced in May 2009. Calcining is off-site. A seven-year ramp-up of underground production from the Middle Elsburg reef is planned, though this is proceeding slowly. FY 2011 production is expected to be 80 tU, increasing to 150 tU in FY 2013. The mine earlier produced over 6000 tU from 1960s to 2001.
Buffelsfontein
First Uranium is building a larger $260 million processing plant at the Buffelsfontein mine which has some 25,000 tU as estimated reserves in old mine tailings – its Mine Waste Solutions (MWS) project. Uranium production is expected to be 600 tU/yr over 16 years at full capacity, ramping up to 350 tU/yr from late 2010. The provincial government in July 2009 approved construction of a new tailings storage facility for MWS, but this was withdrawn in January 2010 pending resolution of an appeal under the National Environmental Management Act. Both the Ezulwini and MWS operations are in the Klerksdorp area southwest of Johannesburg and in 2008 the company announced plans to build an acid plant using pyrite from MWS and 30 MWe of power generating capacity to service the two operations.
Randfontein
Nearby, Rand Uranium was spun off from Harmony Gold Mining Co and is reopening part of the Randfontein mine which produced uranium in the 1980s. It has identified JORC-compliant resources of some 41,000 tU both in tailings and underground. This includes probable reserves of 15,200 tU in the Cooke tailings. Production at 1000 tU/yr is envisaged. Pamzodi Resources, South Africa's largest private equity fund, agreed to take a 60% share in the new company for US$ 420 million, but this was later reduced to $348 million. Following a feasibility study, a US$ 470 million treatment plant to produce 960 tU/yr mostly from Cooke tailings is planned. First production is expected mid-2012.
Henkries
The Henkries uranium project is being explored by Namakwa Uranium, which is now owned 74% by Niger Uranium and 26% by the company's black economic development partner, Gilstra Exploration. Anglo American did a feasibility study on the project in 1979.
Fuel cycle, R&D
The South African nuclear industry dates back to the mid-1940s, when the predecessor organisation to the Atomic Energy Corporation (AEC) was formedg. In 1959, the government approved the creation of a domestic nuclear industry and planning began the next year on building a research reactor, in cooperation with the US Atoms for Peace program. The Pelindaba site near Pretoria was established in 1961, and the 20 MWt Safari-1 reactor there went critical in 1965h. In 1970, the Uranium Enrichment Corporation (UCOR) was established as South Africa commenced an extensive nuclear fuel cycle program, as well as the development of a nuclear weapons capability. In 1985, UCOR was incorporated into the AEC, which became the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa) in 1999.
Enrichment was undertaken at Valindaba (also referred to as Pelindaba East) adjacent to the Pelindaba site by the unique Helikon aerodynamic vortex tube process developed in South Africa, based on a German design. Construction of the Y-Plant pilot uranium enrichment plant commenced in 1971 and was completed in 1975 by UCOR. At this time, the USA stopped exporting highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuel for the Safari-1 reactor in protest against the construction of Y-Plant and South Africa's nuclear weapons program. Due to technical problems, Y-Plant only started producing 45%-enriched uranium in 1979 and in 1981 the first fuel assemblies for Safari-1 from Valindaba were fabricated. Operations at Y-Plant ceased in 1990 and the plant has been dismantled under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) supervision.
On the neighbouring Pelindaba site, construction on a semi-commercial enrichment plant commenced in the late 1970s. This Z-Plant began commissioning in 1984, with full production in 1988. It had a capacity of 300,000 SWU/yr and supplied 3.25%-enriched uranium for the Koeberg plant. (Originally fuel for Koeberg was imported, but at the height of sanctionsi the AEC was asked to set up and operate conversion, enrichment and fuel manufacturing services.) Z-Plant was uneconomic and closed in 1995.
Both centrifuge and molecular laser isotope processes were also being explored. Construction of the prototype module for the Molecular Laser Isotope Separation (MLIS) project was carried out in the Y-Plant building. The MLIS program started in 1983 and was joined by Cogema of France in a 50:50 funding arrangement in 1995. In 1997 the program was cancelled due to technological difficulties and AEC budget cuts.
Eskom now procures conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication services on world markets. The 2007 draft nuclear energy policy outlined an extensive program to develop all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, including a return to conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication and also reprocessing of used fuel as strategic priorities related to energy security. A new 5.0 to 10.0 million SWU centrifuge enrichment plant built in partnership with Areva, Urenco or Tenex is envisaged, the larger version allowing scope for exports.
However, Klydon Corporation, which emerged from the AEC, is now developing the Aerodynamic Separation Process (ASP) employing so-called stationary-wall centrifuges with UF6 injected tangentially. It is based on Helikon but, pending regulatory authorisation from Necsa, has not yet been tested on UF6 – only light isotopes such as siliconj. Klydon Element 92 Division is focused on uranium prospects, while its Stable Isotopes Division is concerned with silicon-28, zirconium-90 and medical isotopes.
Necsa was established from AEC as a public company under the 1999 Nuclear Energy Act, and is wholly-owned by the State. Its main functions are to undertake and promote research and development in the field of nuclear energy and radiation sciences and technology, and to process source material, special nuclear material and restricted material. The organisation continues to operate the Safari-1 reactor at its Pelindaba nuclear research centre. Safari-1 is the main supplier of medical radioisotopes in Africa and can supply up to 25% of the world's molybdenum-99 needs. In 2005, the Minister of Minerals and Energy announced that the reactor would be converted from using HEU to low enriched uranium (LEU)9. Necsa said that full conversion to LEU fuel was achieved by mid-2009, and that it hoped to convert the HEU targets used for radioisotope production to LEU in 2010.10
Radioactive waste management
The 2008 National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute Act provides for the establishment of a National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute which will manage radioactive waste disposal in South Africa. The responsibility for nuclear waste disposal has been discharged by Necsa until now. Necsa has been operating the national repository for low- and intermediate-level wastes at Vaalputs in the Northern Cape province. This was commissioned in 1986 for wastes from Koeberg and is financed by fees paid by Eskom. Some low- and intermediate-level waste from hospitals, industry and Necsa itself is disposed of at Necsa's Pelindaba site.
Used fuel is stored at Koeberg. In August 2008, the nuclear safety director of the Minerals and Energy department announced that Eskom would seek commercial arrangements to reprocess its used fuel overseas and utilize the resulting mixed oxide (MOX) fuel.
Regulation and safety
In 1948, the Atomic Energy Act created the Atomic Energy Board, which later became the Atomic Energy Corporation (AEC). In 1963, the Nuclear Installations Act provided for licensing and in 1982 the Nuclear Energy Act made the AEC responsible for all nuclear matters including enrichment. An amendment to it created the autonomous Council for Nuclear Safety, responsible for licensing.
The Nuclear Energy Act of 1999 gives responsibility to the Minister of Minerals & Energy for nuclear power generation, management of radioactive wastes and the country's international commitments. The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa) is a state corporation established from the AEC under the Act.
The National Nuclear Regulator Act of 1999 sets up the National Nuclear Regulator (NNR) – previously the Council for Nuclear Safety – covering the full fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal.
The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) has overall responsibility for nuclear energy and administers the above Acts.
The Department of Environmental Affairs is responsible for environmental assessment of projects, and has a cooperative agreement with the National Nuclear Regulator for nuclear projects.
Non proliferation
South Africa is the only country to develop nuclear weapons and voluntarily give them up. It embarked on a nuclear weapons program around 1970 and had a nuclear device ready by the end of the decade. The weapons program was terminated by President F. W. de Klerk in 1990 and, in 1991, the country signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In 1993, de Klerk announced that six nuclear weapons and a seventh uncompleted one had been dismantled. In 1995, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was able to declare that it was satisfied all materials were accounted for and the weapons program had been terminated and dismantled.
In 1996, South Africa signed the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty – also called the Pelindaba Treaty. In 2002, the country signed the Additional Protocol in relation to its safeguards agreements with the IAEA. South Africa is member of the Nuclear Suppliers' Group.
Further Information
Notes
a. In January 2008, Eskom was forced to curtail power exports as well as introduce load shedding. The reserve margin of the electricity system was around 5% in January 2008 but by January 2009 the reserve margin had recovered to about 14%. This was due to economic slowdown, and hence lower electricity demand, as well as the recovery of coal-related problems experienced by the company in early 2008. [Back]
b. Eskom holds 100% of the shares in the PBMR company, PBMR (Pty) Ltd., but several investment partners have provided financing for the feasibility stage of the project. In June 2000, the UK's British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL) took a 22.5% stake in the venture. Soon after, US utility PECO (later Exelon, following the merger with Commonwealth Edison) took a 12.5% stake. The South African government-owned Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) took 25%, leaving Eskom with 40%, of which 10% was reserved (but never taken up) for an Economic Empowerment Entity. Exelon withdrew from the project in April 2002. Also, around the same time, BNFL reduced its stake to 15%, and IDC reduced its to 13%. In 2006, BNFL's 15% stake was transferred to its Westinghouse subsidiary, which was later sold to Toshiba.
Under an investors' agreement made in 2005, BNFL/Westinghouse had a 15% stake, IDC 14%, the South African government 30%, leaving Eskom with 41%. These shares were expected to move to 4% Westinghouse, 15% IDC, 30% South African government and 5% Eskom by 2012, with 46% being held by another investor. However, in August 2006, this agreement lapsed and a new agreement was being negotiated. Although PBMR (Pty) Ltd still lists its investors as the South African government, IDC, Westinghouse and Eskom, its current funding is principally from the South African government (through its Department of Public Enterprises), and due to expire at the end of March 2010. Since the feasibility stage finished in 2004, it appears that all of the funding for PBMR (Pty) Ltd. has come from Eskom and the South African government. [Back]
c. Developed from the 200 MWt Siemens/Interatom HTR-Modul reactor design, the initial PBMR was a 268 MWt (110 MWe) design. In order to lower the capital costs of the plant, relatively minor changes led to a 302 MWt design. However, as a result of issues arising during more detailed analysis, in 2002 it was decided that a complete review of the design was to be carried out. This resulted in the 400 MWt (165 MWe) version with a fixed central reflector in the core (the 268 MWt design has a dynamic central reflector column of graphite spheres). In addition, the power conversion unit was changed from three-shaft vertical to single-shaft horizontal turbine-compressor configuration. Reactor outlet temperature is 900ºC.5 [Back]
d. In 2009, the PBMR company announced it had decided to focus on a 200 MWt (80 MWe) design for the PBMR rather than the 400 MWt version (see Note b above). The 200 MWt version uses a conventional Rankine cycle to deliver super-heated steam (750ºC) through a steam generator for electricity generation and process heat applications. [Back]
e. Construction of the 400 MWt demonstration plant was originally envisaged to commence in April 2007 but, partly due to delays in licensing, was put back to 2009. Later, following the decision in 2009 to focus on the 200 MWt PBMR design, the construction schedule was delayed indefinitely.
In 2003, the South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) issued positive Record of Decisions on the environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies for the PBMR demonstration module and pilot fuel plant. However, these decisions were set aside by the Cape High Court following appeals from anti-nuclear group Earthlife Africa. This ruling, along with design changes to the PBMR – the Brayton cycle turbine design was simplified from 3-shaft vertical to single shaft horizontal configuration and the reactor capacity increased from 302 MWt to 400 MWt (see Note b above) – led to the decision to enter into a new EIA process for the demonstration PBMR. This process remains unfinished and is not likely to be completed in light of the change to a 200 MWt version of the PBMR. In January 2007, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism upheld the positive Record of Decision for the pilot fuel plant EIA.
Several contracts for the 400 MWt design had been awarded. In April 2005, PBMR (Pty) awarded a US$ 20 million contract to Uhde, a local subsidiary of Germany's Thyssenkrupp Engineering, to build a plant at Pelindaba near Pretoria to manufacture the fuel pebbles for the planned demonstration PBMR. The fuel plant was expected to be completed by 2010 but has been delayed by regulatory issues. In August 2008, a contract was awarded to the joint venture company Murray & Roberts SNC-Lavalin Nuclear (Pty) Ltd for the provision of engineering, procurement, project and construction management (EPCM) services for the demonstration PBMR plant, then envisaged to be at Koeberg. [Back]
f. See the Uranium One website (www.uranium1.com) [Back]
g. In 1944, the USA and UK requested forecasts from South Africa on its potential to supply mineable uranium. This led to the formation of the Uranium Committee in 1945, and, in 1948, the Atomic Energy Board (AEB) was formally established to oversee uranium production and trade. In 1959, research, development and utilisation of nuclear technology was added to AEB's remit. In 1970, the Uranium Enrichment Corporation (UCOR) was established, initiating an extensive fuel cycle program. In 1982, the AEB was re-established as the Nuclear Development Corporation of South Africa (NUCOR) under a new controlling body – the Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa (AEC). In 1985, UCOR was incorporated into the AEC. The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) was formed out of the AEC in 1999. [Back]
h. The Safari-1 (South African Fundamental Atomic Research Installation) reactor initially operated at 6.75 MW and was upgraded to 20 MW in 1968. The pool-type reactor is an Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) design fuelled by highly enriched uranium (HEU). A program to convert to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel commenced in 2006. [Back]
i. South Africa's policy of apartheid – which ended with the 27 April 1994 general election – attracted extensive international sanctions. However, it was not until the late 1970s/early 1980s that international pressure intensified, culminating in 1985-1991 with trade sanctions by the USA, British Commonwealth and Europe, as well as disinvestment campaigns in many countries. [Back]
j. Extrapolating from test results, ASP is expected to have an enrichment factor in each unit of 1.10 (cf 1.03 in Helikon) with about 1000 kWh/SWU. Development of it is aiming for 1.15 enrichment factor and less than 500 kWh/SWU (compared with about 10,000 kWh/SWU in the Z-plant). Projections for ASP give an enrichment cost under $100/SWU, with this split evenly among capital, operation and energy input, making it a very low-cost technology in respect to capital, and with very small modules being economic. [Back]
References
1. Southern African Power Pool Statistics 2008 [Back]
2. Eskom Holdings Limited, Annual Report 2009, p. 226 [Back]
3. Total generation figures taken from Electricity generated and available for distribution (Preliminary), Statistics South Africa, Statistical release P4141 (December 2009); nuclear generation from Nuclear Power Reactors in the World, International Atomic Energy Agency, Reference Data Series No. 2, 2009 Edition (ISBN: 9789201058096) [Back]
4. Eskom shelves new nuclear project, World Nuclear News (5 December 2008) [Back]
5. PBMR Project Status and the Way Ahead, Dieter Matzner, PBMR (Pty) Ltd, presented at the 2nd International Topical Meeting on High Temperature Reactor Technology held in Beijing, China (22-24 September 2004) [Back]
6. PBMR postponed, World Nuclear News (11 September 2009) [Back]
7. Pebble Bed Modular Reactor Company is Contemplating Restructuring Measures, PBMR (Pty) Ltd. news release (18 February 2010); PBMR Restructuring, Department of Public Enterprises press release (18 February 2010) [Back]
8. South Africa’s Pebble Bed Company Joins Forces with MHI of Japan, PBMR (Pty) Ltd. news release (4 February 2010) [Back]
9. Minister of Minerals and Energy announces the phasing out of the use of High Enriched Uranium for the Pelindaba Research Reactor Nuclear Fuel, Department of Minerals and Energy statement (18 July 2005) [Back]
10. Nuclear Reactor Uses Only Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) for the First Time, South African Nuclear Energy Corporation media release (29 June 2009) [Back]
General sources
International Atomic Energy Agency, Country Nuclear Power Profiles: South Africa
South African Nuclear Energy Corporation website (www.necsa.co.za)
PBMR (Pty) Ltd. website (www.pbmr.co.za)
Eskom website (www.eskom.co.za)
State Owned Enterprises page on the Department of Public Enterprises website (www.dpe.gov.za)
參考來源:World Nuclear Association
