Nuclear Power in Russia

(updated 1 March 2010)

• Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for much expanded role of nuclear energy, doubling output by 2020.
• Efficiency of nuclear generation in Russia has increased dramatically since the mid 1990s.
• A major increase in uranium mine production is planned.
• Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.

Contents

• Electricity Supply
• Present Nuclear Capacity
• Extending Nuclear Capacity
• Reactor Technology
• Improving reactor performance
• Uranium resources and mining
• Fuel Cycle Facilities: front end
• International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC)
• Used Fuel and Reprocessing
• Decommissioning
• Organisation
• Exports
• International Outlook
• Research & Development
• Public Opinion
• Non-proliferation
• Appendix: Background: Soviet nuclear culture

Russia's first nuclear power plant, and the first in the world to produce electricity, was the 5 MWe Obninsk reactor, in 1954. Russia's first two commercial-scale nuclear power plants started up in 1963-64, then in 1971-73 the first of today's production models were commissioned. By the mid 1980s Russia had 25 power reactors in operation, but the nuclear industry was beset by problems. The Chernobyl accident led to a resolution of these, as outlined in the Appendix.

Between the 1986 Chernobyl accident and mid 1990s, only one nuclear power station was commissioned in Russia, the 4-unit Balakovo, with unit 3 being added to Smolensk. Economic reforms following the collapse of the Soviet Union meant an acute shortage of funds for nuclear developments, and a number of projects were stalled. But by the late 1990s exports of reactors to Iran, China and India were negotiated and Russia's stalled domestic construction program was revived as far as funds allowed.

Around 2000 nuclear construction revived and Rostov-1 (now known as Volgodonsk-1), the first of the delayed units, started up in 2001, joining 21 GWe already on the grid. This greatly boosted morale in the Russian nuclear industry. It was followed by Kalinin-3 in 2004.

By 2006 the government's resolve to develop nuclear power had firmed and there were projections of adding 2-3 GWe per year to 2030 in Russia as well as exporting plants to meet world demand for some 300 GWe of new nuclear capacity in that time frame.

In January 2010 the government approved the federal target program designed to bring a new technology platform for the nuclear power industry based on fast reactors. Rosatom's long-term strategy up to 2050 involves moving to inherently safe nuclear plants using fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle. Fossil fuels for power generation are to be largely phased out.

Electricity supply in Russia

Russia's electricity supply, formerly centrally controlled by RAO Unified Energy System (UES)*, faces a number of acute constraints. First, demand is rising strongly after more than a decade of stagnation, secondly some 50 GWe of generating plant (more than a quarter of it) in the European part of Russia comes to the end of its design life by 2010, and thirdly Gazprom has cut back on the very high level of natural gas supplies for electricity generation because it can make about five times as much money by exporting the gas to the west (27% of EU gas comes from Russia). UES' gas-fired plants burned about 60% of the gas marketed in Russia by Gazprom, and it is aimed to halve this by 2020. (Also, by 2020, the Western Siberian gas fields will be so depleted that they supply only a tenth of current Russian output, compared with nearly three quarters now.) Also there are major regional grid constraints so that a significant proportion of the capacity of some plants cannot be used.

* In Russia, "energy" mostly implies electricity.

Electricity production reached 1016 billion kWh in 2007, with 160 billion kWh (16%) coming from nuclear power, 67% from gas and coal and 18% from hydro. In 2005 net export was 12 TWh and final consumption was 650 TWh (after distribution losses of 113 and energy sector use of 178 TWh). Nuclear capacity is about 10% of total 211 GWe. Electricity demand is projected to grow to 1426 billion kWh in 2015 (or maybe 1600 billion kWh in high scenario) and to 1700 to 2000 billion kWh by 2020, requiring 340 to 390 GWe total by then, requiring US$ 420 to $540 billion investment. Early in 2008 the projected annual electricity demand growth to 2020 was put at 4%. 2009 nuclear production was 163.3 billion kWh (83.7 TWh from VVER, 79.6 from RBMK and other).

Nuclear electricity output is rising strongly due simply to better performance of the nuclear plants, with capacity factors leaping from 56% to 76% 1998-2003 and then on to 79.5% in 2008. Energoatom aims for 90% capacity factor by 2015. In gross terms, output is projected to grow from about 150 billion kWh in 2005 to 166 in 2010, and 239 billion kWh in 2016 (18.6% of total). or more soberly to 230 billion kWh in 2020. Nuclear generating capacity is planned to grow more than 50% from 23 GWe gross (21.7 net) in 2006 to 35 GWe in 2016, and at least double to 51 GWe by 2020.

In 2006 Rosatom announced a target of nuclear providing 23% of electricity by 2020 and 25% by 2030, but 2007 plans approved by the government have scaled this back a little, and in 2009 it was pruned back more (see: Extending Nuclear Capacity below).

In parallel with this Russia is greatly increasing its hydro-electric capacity, aiming to increase by 60% to 2020 and double it by 2030. Hydro OGK is planning to commission 5 GWe by 2011. The 3 GWe Boguchanskaya plant in Siberia is being developed in collaboration with Rusal, for aluminium smelting. The aim is to have almost half of Russia's electricity from nuclear and hydro by 2030.

Following proposals worked out over several years, a government order consolidating the country's nuclear utilities was signed in 2001. Rosenergoatom, which in 2008 became Energoatom, took over all civil reactors including those under construction, and related infrastructure.

Energoatom operates within the context of 2003 state energy policy, and of state funding for new plants to meet policy goals. A policy priority is to reduce the use of natural gas for electricity and to double the nuclear output by 2020. The growth is to come from lifetime extension of first-generation units, upgrading, increased availability to 85% average (and hopefully more), together with new plants.

UES electricity tariffs were planned to increase from (US$) 1.1 c/kWh in 2001 to 1.9 c/kWh in 2005 and 2.4 c/kWh in 2015. However, only much smaller increases have so far been approved by the government, and even these have attracted wide opposition. However, electricity supplied is now being fully paid for, in contrast to the situation in the mid 1990s.

In February 2007 UES said that it was aiming to raise up to US$ 15 billion by selling shares in as many as 15 power generation companies, having increased its investment target by 2010 from $79 to $118 billion. Late in 2006 UES raised $459 million by selling 14.4% of one of its generators, OGK-5, and since then the UES sell-off has continued with investors committing to continued expansion. In mid 2008 RAO UES was wound up, having sold off all its assets. Some of these were bought by EU utilities, for instance Finland's Fortum bought at auction 76.5% of the small utility TGC-10, which operates in well-developed industrial regions of the Urals and Western Siberia. From July 2008, 25% of all Russia's power is sold on the competitive market. The wholesale power market is expected to be fully liberalised by 2011.

InterRAO was initially a subsidiary of RAO UES, involved with international trade and investment in electricity, particularly with Finland, Belarus and Kazakhstan. It acquired some of RAO UES assets when that company was broken up. It is responsible for finding a foreign investor and structuring electricity marketing for the proposed Baltic nuclear power plant. It aims to increase its generation capacity from 8 to 30 GWe by 2015. In November 2008 Rosatom's share in InterRAO was increased to 57.28%.

Present nuclear capacity

Russia's nuclear plants, with 31 operating reactors totalling 21,743 MWe, comprise:

• 4 first generation VVER-440/230 or similar pressurised water reactors,
• 2 second generation VVER-440/213 pressurised water reactors,
• 9 third generation VVER-1000 pressurised water reactors with a full containment structure, mostly V-320 types,
• 11 RBMK light water graphite reactors now unique to Russia. The four oldest of these were commissioned in the 1970s at Kursk and Leningrad and are of some concern to the Western world. A further Kursk unit is under construction.
• 4 small graphite-moderated BWR reactors in eastern Siberia, constructed in the 1970s for cogeneration (EGP-6 models on linked map).
• One BN-600 fast-breeder reactor.

Apart from Bilibino, several reactors supply district heating - a total of over 11 PJ/yr.

Power Reactors in Operation

Reactor	Type V=PWR	MWe net, each	Commercial operation	Scheduled close
Balakovo 1	V-320	950	5/86	2015
Balakovo 2	V-320	988	1/88	2017
Balakovo 3-4	V-320	950	4/89, 12/93	2018, 2023
Beloyarsk 3	BN600 FBR	560	11/81	2010
Bilibino 1-4	LWGR EGP-6	11	4/74-1/77	2019-21
Kalinin 1-2	V-338	950	6/85, 3/87	2014, 2016
Kalinin 3	V-320	950	12/04	2034
Kola 1-2	V-230	411	12/73, 2/75	2018, 2019
Kola 3-4	V-213	411	12/82, 12/84	2011, 2014
Kursk 1-2	RBMK	925	10/77, 8/79	2021, 2024
Kursk 3-4	RBMK	925	3/84, 2/86	2013, 2015
Leningrad 1-2	RBMK	925	11/74, 2/76	2019, 2022
Leningrad 3-4	RBMK	925	6/80, 8/81	2025, 2011, +15 yr
Novovoronezh 3-4	V-179	385	6/72, 3/73	2016, 2017
Novovoronezh 5	V-187	950	2/81	2035 after upgrade
Smolensk 1-3	RBMK	925	9/83, 7/85,1/90	2013, 2020
Rostov 1	V-320	990	3/01	2030
Total: 31		21,821 MWe

V-320 is the base model of what is generically VVER-1000, V-230 and V-213 are generically VVER-440, V-179 & V-187 are prototypes. Rostov is also known as Volgodonsk.

Life extension and completing construction

Generally, Russian reactors are licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of twelve first-generation reactors* totalling 5.7 GWe, and the extension period envisaged is now 15 to 25 years, necessitating major investment in refurbishing them. Generally the VVER-440 and RBMK units will get 15-year life extensions and the nine VVER-1000 units 25 years. So far 15-year extensions have been achieved for Novovoronezh-3 & 4, Kursk-1, Kola-1 & 2 and Leningrad-1, 2 & 3. Bilibino 1-4 have also been given 15-year licence extensions. (Kola 1 & 2 VVER-440 and the Kursk and Leningrad RBMK units are all models which the EU has paid to shut down early in countries outside Russia.)

* Leningrad 1&2, Kursk 1&2, Kola 1&2, Bilibino 1-4, Novovoronezh 3&4.

Safety analyses for Kola 3 & 4, which are later-model VVER-440 reactors, are being undertaken with a view to 15-year life extension.

A plan for refurbishment, upgrade and life extension of Novovoronezh-5 was announced in mid 2009, this being the first second-generation VVER-1000 project. The initial estimate was RUR 1.66 billion (USD 52 million) but this had become USD 300 million a few months later. The work in 2010 is to include total replacement of the reactor control system and 80% of electrical equipment, and fitting upgraded safety systems, in particular, those of emergency and feed water.

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering lifetime extensions and uprating all of its eleven operating RBMK reactors. Following significant design modifications made after the Chernobyl accident, as well as extensive refurbishment including replacement of fuel channels, a 45-year lifetime is seen as realistic for the 1000 MWe units. In 2009 they provided 45% of Russia's nuclear-generated electricity. A major contract for upgrading Leningrad unit 4 over 2008-11 is under way. Kursk 4 is next, and Kursk 2 & 3 with Smolensk 3 will soon follow. The R&D Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk units. For Leningrad 2-4, fuel enriched to average 3% instead of 2.4% will give a 5% increase in power - some 140 MWe. Rostechnadzor has authorized trials in unit 2 of the new fuel, and early in 2010 it will consider authorizing a 5% uprate for long-term operation.

The Beloyarsk-3 BN-600 fast neutron reactor is being upgraded and prepared for 15-year life extension, but no details are available.

Several more reactors have been under construction - see following section.

There is considerable uncertainty about completing Kursk-5 - an upgraded RBMK design. However, Rosatom is keen to see it completed and in January 2007 the Duma's energy committee recommended that the government fund its completion by 2010. It is more than 70% complete and requires US$ 755 million to finish, plus a similar amount for grid improvement. In March 2007 the Industry Ministry recommended to the government that work proceed and Rosenergoatom then applied for 27 billion roubles (US$ 1 billion) from the ministry's 2008-10 federal budget to complete it. This did not materialise so its completion is contingent upon finding other funds, and discussions with Sberbank and industrial electricity consumers such as steel producers were continuing as of May 2009. All other RBMK reactors - long condemned by the EU - are due to close by 2024, which will leave it technologically isolated.

Extending nuclear capacity

Rosatom's initial proposal for a rapid expansion of nuclear capacity was based on the cost effectiveness of completing the 9 GWe of then partially built plant. To get the funds, Minatom offered Gazprom the opportunity to invest in some of the partly completed nuclear plants. The argument was that the US$ 7.3 billion required for the whole 10 GWe (including the just-completed Rostov-1) would be quickly recouped from gas exports if the new nuclear plant reduced the need to burn that gas domestically.

In September 2006 Rosatom announced a target of nuclear providing 23% of electricity by 2020, thus commissioning two 1200 MWe plants per year from 2011 to 2014 and then three per year until 2020 - some 31 GWe and giving some 44,000 MWe of nuclear capacity then.

More significantly, the Ministry of Industry and Energy (MIE) and Rosatom were charged with promptly developing an action plan to attract investment into power generation. It is envisaged that by 2020 much generation will be privatized and competitive, while the state will control natural monopoly functions such as the grid.

From January 2009 the FTP was replaced by Rosatom's long-term activity program. This includes Kaliningrad and Kursk, both subject to private finance. However, capacity targets and expenditure are much as above. By 2030 nuclear share of electricity was expected to grow to 25%, from 16% then.

However, by April 2009 reduced electricity demand expectations due to the recession caused the whole construction program outlined above to be scaled back, and some projects put on hold. Ten units were deferred pending "economic upturn and electricity demand growth", expected in about two years. See Table below, where three units have been moved from planned to proposed accordingly. From mid 2009, half the capital for new nuclear plants will come from Rosatom budget and half from the state.

In July 2009 a revised federal target program (FTP) for 2010-2015 and until 2020 was approved and signed by the President. Projected federal budget funding was reduced to RUR 110 billion ($3.5 billion), apparently for 2010. This put Kursk II and Smolensk II into the picture for completion by 2020, ahead of many other units, and they have been shown thus in the Table below. On the other hand another presentation from Atomenergoprom in September 2009 (Figure above) has most of those "planned" in the Table below plus five other 1200 MWe units at unnamed sites coming on line by 2020, and 43.3 GWe nuclear being on line then.

In February 2010 the government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment program for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of this from Rosenergoatom funds. It includes the reactors listed below as under construction, as well as Volgodonsk 3, Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant.

The FTP program is based on VVER technology at least to about 2030. But it highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options, outlined below in Transition to Fast Reactors subsection. In stage 1 of the second option, which was adopted, a 100 MWe lead-bismuth-cooled fast reactor is to be built, and in stage 2 over 2015-2020 a pilot demonstration 300 MWe lead-cooled BREST reactor and a multi-purpose fast neutron research reactor (MBIR) are to be built. In addition it is planned to build and commission a commercial complex to fabricate dense fuel, to complete construction of a pilot demonstration pyrochemical complex to fabricate BN fuel, and to test closed fuel cycle technologies. Fusion studies are included and the total R&D budget is RUR 55.7 billion, mostly from the federal budget. The FTP implementation is intended to result in a 70% growth in exports of high technology equipment, works and services rendered by the Russian nuclear industry by 2020.

See also subsections: Transition to Fast Reactors in this section, and Fast Reactors, in Reactor Technology section below

The FTP program envisages a 25-30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45-50% in 2050 and 70-80% by end of century.

Major Power Reactors under Construction, Planned and officially Proposed

Plant	Reactor Type	MWe	Status, Start Construction	Commercial operation
Rostov/ Volgodonsk 2	V-320	1000	Const (started up)	10/2010
Kalinin 4	V-320	1000	Const	10/2011
Kursk 5	RBMK	1000	Const suspended	indefinite
Vilyuchinsk	KLT-40S	40 x 2	Const 5/09	2012
Beloyarsk 4	BN-800 FBR	880	Const	2014
Novovoronezh II -1	VVER 1200/ V-392M	1200	Const 6/08	2012-13
Leningrad II-1	VVER 1200/ V-491	1200	Const 10/08	10/2013
Novovoronezh II -2	VVER 1200/ V-392M	1200	Const 7/09	2015
Subtotal of 9		7480 gross, 7130 net
Rostov/ Volgodonsk 3	VVER 1000/ V-320	1100	Planned, 2010	2014
Leningrad II -2	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2011	2016
Rostov/ Volgodonsk 4	VVER 1000/ V-320	1100	Planned, 2011	2016
Baltic 1 (Kaliningrad)	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2011	2016
Seversk 1	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2010	2016
Obninsk	SVBR-100	100	Planned, 2011	2015
Leningrad II -3	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2011	2017
Nizhegorod 1	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2012	2017
Seversk 2	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2012	2017
Tver 1	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2012	2017
Nizhegorod 2	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2013	2018
Tver 2	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2013	2017
Baltic 2 (Kaliningrad)	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2012	2018
Leningrad II -4	VVER 1200	1200	Planned, 2014	2019
Beloyarsk 5	BREST	300	Planned, 2016	2020
subtotal of 15	VVER 1200	15,800 gross, approx 15,300 net
Zheleznogorsk MCC	VBER-300	300	Proposed	2015
Zheleznogorsk MCC	VBER-300	300	Proposed	2016
Kursk II - 1	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2015
Kursk II - 2	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2017
Kursk II - 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2018
Kursk II - 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Smolensk II - 1	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2017
Smolensk II - 2	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2018
Smolensk II - 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Smolensk II - 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Kola II -1	VK-300, VBER 300 or VVER	300	Proposed	2020
South Ural 1	VVER 1200	1200	Deferred	was 2016
Novovoronezh II -3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2017 ?
Tsentral 1	VVER 1200	1200	Deferred, 2013	2018
South Ural 2	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	was 2018
Kola II - 2	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2018
Novovoronezh II -4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019 ?
Tver 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
South Ural 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Tsentral 2	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	was 2019
Kola II - 3	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2019
Primorsk 1	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2019
Nizhegorod 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019
Nizhegorod 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Tsentral 3	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2019 ?
Tsentral 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020 ?
South Ural 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Tver 4	VVER 1200	1200	Proposed	2020
Kola II - 4	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2020
Primorsk 2	VK-300 or VBER 300	300	Proposed	2020
Pevek	KLT-40S	40x2	Proposed	2020
Beloyarsk 6	BN-1200	1200	Proposed (approved)	2024?
subtotal of 32 units		30,000 approx

VVER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 nuclear power plant. Rostov is also known as Volgodonsk. South Urals was to be BN-800, and may revert.

Seversk is near Tomsk, Tver is near Kalinin, Nizhegorod is a new site near Nizhniy Novgorod, 400 km east of Moscow, and Tsentral (central) at Bui in Kostrama region. South Ural is 140 km west of Chelyabinsk. Primorsk is in the far east, as is Vilyuchinsk in the Kamchatka region, and Pevek in the Chukotka Autonomous Region near Bilibino, which it will replace. Vilyuchinsk and Pevek are floating nuclear power or cogeneration plants.

Note: On the basis of the above figures we have listed those units to Volgodonsk 4 (Rostov), Leningrad II-4 and Baltic 2 at Kaliningrad as "planned" (8 x 1200), and the balance of 37 units total 36,680 MWe to 2020/22, including those ten deferred in 2009, as "proposed".

Rostov/ Volgodonsk 3 & 4 environmental statement and construction application were approved by Rostechnadzor in May 2009, and the construction licence was granted to Energoatom in June. Rosatom brought forward the completion dates of the two units to 2013 and 2014 after deciding that they would have V-320 type of VVER with improved steam generators and capacity of 1100 MWe. This is expected to save some RUR 10 billion relative to the AES-2006 technology. First criticality of unit 3 is planned for Decemeber 2013. Nizhniy Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (NN AEP) is principal contractor for units 3 & 4, expected to cost RUR 146 billion (US$ 5 billion). It expects unit 2 which it is building to start up in January 2010, with grid connection in March and full commercial operation in October.

Novovoronezh phase II is being built by Moscow AtomEnergoProekt, with work starting in 2007. This is the lead plant for deploying the AES-2006 units. First concrete was poured for unit 1 of this (unit 6 at the site) in June 2008 and it is expected to be commissioned in 2012, with unit 2 following in 2013, at a total cost of US$ 5 billion for 2136 MWe net. Rostechnadzor licensed construction of unit 2 in October 2008 and construction started in July 2009. The plant is on one of the main hubs of the Russian grid.

A general contract for Leningrad phase II was signed with St Petersburg AtomEnergoProekt (SPb AEP) in August 2007 and Rostechnadzor granted site licences in September 2007. A specific engineering, procurement and construction contract for the first two 1170 MWe (net) units was signed in March 2008. First concrete was poured on schedule for unit 1 in October 2008 and it is due to be commissioned in October 2013, with the second in 2016, originally at a cost of US$ 5.8 billion ($2480/kW) possibly including some infrastructure. Total project cost was estimated at $6.6 billion. Rostechnadzor granted a construction licence for the second reactor in July 2009, but construction was deferred. Each reactor will also provide 1.05 TJ/hr (9.17 PJ/yr) of district heating. They are designed to replace the oldest two Leningrad units. A design contract for the next two units (3 & 4) was signed with SPb AEP in September 2008, and public consultation on these was held in Sosnovy Bor in mid 2009. An environmental review by Rostechnadzor was announced for them in January 2010 and a site development licence is expected soon after.

The first 1200 MWe unit of the Seversk AES-2006 plant 32 km northwest of Tomsk was due to start up in 2015 after construction start in 2010, with the second unit in 2017, but has been postponed by two years. The plant will also supply 7.5 PJ/yr of district heating. Atomenrgopoekt Moscow is to build the plant at estimated cost of RUR 134 billion (US$ 4.4 billion). Rostechnadzor granted a site development licence in November 2009 and site work has commenced. Seversk is the site of a major enrichment plant and former weapons facilities. A design contract for the low-speed turbine generators has been signed between Moscow AEP which is responsible for design and engineering, and Alstom Atomenergomash. This will be the first Russian plant using the low-speed turbines.

The Nizhegorod plant near Nizhniy Novgorod is to comprise four AES-1200 units of 1150 MWe net and costing RUR 269 billion (US$ 9.4 billion), the first coming on line in 2016 to address a regional energy deficit. In February 2008 Rosatom appointed Nizhny-Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (NN-AEP) as the principal designer of the plant. Bids will be invited for construction over 2012-17. Rostechnadzor issued a positive site review (licence?) for units 1 & 2 early in 2010.

The Tver plant at Udomlya and not far from Kalinin is being designed by Nizhny-Novgorod Atomenergoproekt (NN-AEP), and in January 2010 it was announced that Rostechnadzor would conduct an environmental review of it for the first two VVER-1200 units, these being on the general scheme of electricity generators deployment to 2020. No firm dates are given for the project, though a site development licence is expected in march 2010.

The 2340 MWe Tsentral (Central) nuclear power plant is to be 10 km northwest of Bui Town in the Kostroma region, on the Kostroma River. It was another of those deferred but following Rosatom October 2008 decision to proceed, it now appears that it will start construction in 2013 with the first unit completed in 2018. Moscow Atomenergoproekt is the architect-engineer. A site development licence is expected by mid 2010, and a construction licence in 2012. The cost of the project and infrastructure is expected to be RUR 130 billion ($ 5 billion).

Apart from the February 2008 plan, Rosatom subsidiary InterRAO EES proposed a Baltic or Baltiyskaya nuclear plant in Kaliningrad on the Baltic coast to generate electricity for export, and with up to 49% European equity. Private equity would be an innovation for Russia. The plant would comprise two 1200 MWe VVER units designed by St Petersburg Atomenergoproekt, sited at Neman, close to the Lithuanian border and costing some RUR 194 billion (EUR 4.45 billion, $6.6 billion), for 2300 MWe net.

The Baltic plant directly competes with the plan for a new unit at Visaginas near Ignalina in Lithuania. Rosenergoatom has said that the plant is deliberately placed "essentially within the EU" and is designed to be integrated with the EU grid. Two thirds of the power would be exported to Germany, Poland and Baltic states. Transmission to northern Germany would be via Poland or an undersea cable, and require some EUR 1 billion in transmission infrastructure. There is already substantial transmission capacity east through Lithuania to the St Petersburg region if that were added to the options. The European equity would be in order to secure markets for the power. Lithuania was invited to consider the prospect, instead of building Visaginas as a Baltic states plus Poland project.

Project approval was confirmed by government decree in September 2009, following initial approval in mid 2008 as an amendment to the federal target program (FTP) of 2007. St Petersburg Atomenergoproekt will be the principal contractor, but Atomstroyexport is also involved. Site work was planned to begin in February with construction start either in July 2010 or in 2011 and the first unit is planned to come on line in 2016, after 54 months construction, supplying Energoatom. Second unit construction is planned over 2012-18. Licensing by Rostechnadzor is expected by June 2010. Czech power utility CEZ has expressed interest in the project, as has Iberdrola from Spain, whose engineering subsidiary already works at Kola, Balakovo and Novovoronezh nuclear power plants. It appears that the Baltic plant may be the initial project involving Siemens in close collaboration with Rosatom, enhancing the project’s credibility for foreign investment. Rosatom has said that the project will not be delayed if 49% private equity or long-term sales contracts are not forthcoming.

The Baltic plant and two other ventures with Rusal (see below) will apparently require private equity.

Energoatom signed a purchase contract for the first floating nuclear power plant for Vilyuchinsk, on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the far east, in July 2009. The 2x35 MWe plant, named Academician Lomonosov, is due to be completed in 2011 and commissioned in 2012. See FNPP subsection below.

In December 2009 AKME-Engineering was set up by Rosatom and the En+ Group (a subsidiary of Russian Machines Co/ Basic Element Group) as a 50-50 JV to develop and build a pilot 100 MWe SVBR unit at Obninsk, by 2020, subsequently shortened to 2015. En+ is an associate of EuroSibEnergo and a 53.8% owner of Rusal, which has been in discussion with Rosatom regarding nuclear power plants to serve its aluminium smelter plans (see Aluminium & Nuclear Power sub section below). The project cost was estimated at RUR 16 billion, and En+ was prepared to put in most of this, with Rosatom contributing the technology. Since this is thus a public-private partnership, it was not basically funded from the federal budget.

UES was reported to support construction of new nuclear plants in the regions of Yaroslavl, Chelyabinsk (South Urals) and Vladimir, with two to four units at each.

Further Power Reactors Proposed, uncertain status

Unit	Type	MWe each gross	Start-up
Leningrad II 5-6	VVER-1200	1200
North-west 1 & 2	BWR VK-300	300
Tatar 1 - 3	VVER-1200	1200
Yaroslavl	?
Chelyabinsk (S.Urals)	?
Vladimir	?
Plants with low priority for UES:
Bashkira 1-4	PWR
Balokovo 5 & 6	PWR for Rusal smelter	1000	2013?
Far East 1-4	PWR, 1/3 for Rusal smelter	1000

Transition to Fast Reactors

The BN-800 Beloyarsk-4 fast reactor designed by OKBM Afrikantov is intended to replace the BN-600 unit 3 at Beloyarsk, though the RUR 64 billion (US$ 2.05 billion) project has been delayed by lack of funds since construction start in 2006. It now seems to have adequate funding, though start-up has been moved from 2012 to 2014 due to delays in equipment supplies, but now mid 2013 is said to be possible. The construction funds included $280 million in 2008, RUR 6.7 billion ($227 million) in 2009, and similar in 2010. At the end of 2009 the project was reported as on schedule. The reactor pressure vessel is due to be fully installed by November 2010.

In May 2009 St Petersburg Atomenergopoekt said it was starting design work on a BN-800 reactor for China, where two are proposed at coastal sites. A high-level agreement was signed in October 2009 regarding these.

OKBM Afrikantov is developing a BN-1200 reactor as a next step towards a BN-1800. Rosatom's Science and Technology Council has approved the BN-1200 reactor for Beloyarsk, with pilot plant construction planned to start in 2020.

Moving in the other direction, and downsizing from BN-800 etc, a pilot 100 MWe SVBR-100 unit is to be built at Obninsk by AKME-Engineering by 2020. This is a modular lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept from OKB Gidropress, and is designed to meet regional needs in Russia and abroad. If built in clusters of 10 to 16 units it is claimed to be competitive with VVER types.

Rosatom put forward two fast reactor implementation options for government decision in relation to the Advanced Nuclear Technologies Federal Program 2010-2020. The first focused on a lead-cooled fast reactor such as BREST with its fuel cycle, and assumed mobilisation of all available resources on this project with a total funding of about RUR 140 billion (about $3.1 billion). The second multi-track option was favoured, since it involved lower risks than the first. It would result in technical designs of the Generation IV reactor and associated closed fuel cycles technologies by 2014, and a technological basis of the future innovative nuclear energy system featuring the Generation IV reactors working in closed fuel cycles by 2020. A detailed design would be developed for a multi-purpose fast neutron research reactor (MBIR) by 2014 also. This second option was designed to attract more funds apart from the federal budget allocation, was favoured by Rosatom, and was accepted.

In January 2010 the government approved the federal target program (FTP) "New-generation nuclear energy technologies for the period 2010-2015 and up to 2020" designed to bring a new technology platform for the nuclear power industry based on fast neutron reactors. It anticipated RUR 110 billion to 2020 out of the federal budget, including RUR 60 billion for fast reactors, and subsequent announcements started to allocate funds among three types: BREST, SVBR and continuing R&D on sodium cooled types. The FTP implementation will enable commercializing new fast neutron reactors for Russia to build over 2020-2030. Rosatom's long-term strategy up to 2050 involves moving to inherently safe nuclear plants using fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle and MOX fuel.

Federal target Program Funding for Fast Neutron Reactors to 2020

cooling	Demonstration reactor	timing	Construction RUR billion	R&D RUR billion	Total RUR billion
Pb-Bi cooled	SVBR 100 MWe	by 2015	10.153	3.075	13.228
Na cooled	(BN-600, BN-800)	to 2016	0	5.366	5.366
Pb cooled	BREST 300 MWe	2016-20	15.555	10.143	25.698
	MBIR 150 MWt	2012-20	11.390	5.042	16.432
	Total:		37.1		60.7

Source: Government decree #50, 2010. Mosr (RUR 9.5 billion) of the funding for SVBR construction is from "other sources".

Starting 2020-25 it is envisaged that fast neutron reactors will play an increasing role in Russia, though these will probably be new designs such as BREST with a single core and no blanket assembly for plutonium production. An optimistic scenario has expansion to 90 GWe nuclear capacity by 2050.

See also Fast Reactors, in Reactor Technology section below.

Aluminium and nuclear power

In 2006 the major aluminium producer SUAL (which in March 2007 became part of RUSAL) signed an agreement with Rosatom to support investment in new nuclear capacity at Kola, to power expanded aluminium smelting there from 2013. Four units totalling 1000 MWe were envisaged for Kola stage 2 underpinned by a 25-year contract with SUAL, but economic feasibility is in doubt and the project appears to have been dropped and replaced by two others.

Since 2007 Rosatom and RUSAL, now the world's largest aluminium and alumina producer, have been undertaking a feasibility study on a nuclear power generation and aluminium smelter at Primorye in Russia's far east. This proposal is taking shape as a US$ 10 billion project involving four 1000 MWe reactors and a 600,000 t/yr smelter with Atomstroyexport having a controlling share in the nuclear side. The smelter would require about one third of the output from 4 GWe, and electricity exports to China and North and South Korea are envisaged.

In October 2007 a $8 billion project was announced for the world's biggest aluminium smelter at Balakovo in the Saratov region, complete with two new nuclear reactors to power it. The 1.05 million tonne per year aluminium smelter is to be built by RUSAL and would require about 15 billion kWh/yr. The initial plan was for the existing Balakovo nuclear power plant of four 950 MWe reactors to be expanded with two more - the smelter would require a little over one third of the output of the expanded power plant. However, in February 2010 it was reported that RUSAL proposed to build its own 2000 MWe nuclear power station, with construction to start in 2011. Aluminium smelting is energy-intensive and requires reliable low-cost electricity to be competitive. Increasingly it is also carbon-constrained - this smelter will emit about 1.7 million tonnes of CO2 per year just from anode consumption.

RUSAL has announced an agreement with the regional government which will become effective when the nuclear plant expansion is approved by Rosatom or an alternative is agreed. Balakovo units 5 & 6 have been listed as prospective for some time but were dropped off the 2007-08 Rosatom plan for completing 26 new power reactors by 2020 as they were low priority for UES grid supply. Balakovo is on the Volga R. 800 km SE of Moscow.

Nuclear icebreakers and merchant ship

Nuclear propulsion has proven technically and economically essential in the Russian Arctic where operating conditions are beyond the capability of conventional icebreakers. The power levels required for breaking ice up to 3 metres thick, coupled with refuelling difficulties for other types of vessels, are significant factors. The nuclear fleet has increased Arctic navigation from 2 to 10 months per year, and in the Western Arctic, to year-round. Greater use of the icebreaker fleet is expected with developments on the Yamal Peninsula and further east.

The icebreaker Lenin was the world’s first nuclear-powered surface vessel (20,000 dwt) and remained in service for 30 years (1959-89), though new reactors were fitted in 1970.

It led to a series of larger icebreakers, the six 23,500 dwt Arktika-class, launched from 1975. These powerful vessels have two 171 MWt OK-900 reactors delivering 54 MW at the propellers and are used in deep Arctic waters. The Arktika was the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole, in 1977. The seventh and largest Arktika class icebreaker - 50 Years of Victory (50 Let Pobedy) entered service in 2007. It is 25,800 dwt, 160 m long and 20m wide, and is designed to break through ice up to 2.8 metres thick. Its performance in service has been impressive.

For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, two shallow-draught Taymyr-class icebreakers of 18,260 dwt with one reactor delivering 35 MW were built in Finland and then fitted with their nuclear steam supply system in Russia. They are built to conform with international safety standards for nuclear vessels and were launched from 1989.

A more powerful icebreaker of 110 MW net and 55,600 dwt is planned, with further dual-draught ones of 32,400 dwt and 60 MW power at propellers. The first of these third-generation icebreakers is expected to be finished in 2015 at a cost of RUB 17 billion.

In 1988 the NS Sevmorput was commissioned in Russia, mainly to serve northern Siberian ports. It is a 61,900 tonne 260 m long lash-carrier (taking lighters to ports with shallow water) and container ship with ice-breaking bow. It is powered by the same KLT-40 reactor as used in larger icebreakers, delivering 32.5 propeller MW from the 135 MWt reactor and it needed refuelling only once to 2003.

Russian experience with nuclear powered Arctic ships totals about 300 reactor-years in 2009. In 2008 the Arctic fleet was transferred from the Murmansk Shipping Company under the Ministry of Transport to Atomflot, under Rosatom.

Floating nuclear power plants (FNPP)

Rosatom is planning to construct seven or eight floating nuclear power plants by 2015. The first of them, named Academician Lomonosov, began construction in April 2007 at Severodvinsk with intended completion in 2010 originally to supply that region, but now designated for Vilyuchinsk, Kamchatka. The second was planned for 2012 commissioning at Pevek on the Chukotka peninsula in the far northeast, near Bilibino. Each has two 35 MWe KLT-40S nuclear reactors. (If primarily for desalination this set-up is known as APVS-80.) The 21,500 tonne barge for each twin unit will be 144 metres long, 30 m wide. Three 12-year operating cycles are envisaged, with maintenance between them.

The keel of the first floating nuclear power plant using KLT-40 reactors was laid in April 2007 at Sevmash in Severodvinsk, but in August 2008 Rosatom cancelled the contract and transferred it to the Baltiysky Zavod shipyard at St Petersburg, which has experience in building nuclear icebreakers. A new keel laying took place in May 2009 and the first reactor was delivered from OKBM Afrikantov soon after. The new site for its deployment is Vilyuchinsk, Kamchatka peninsula, with completion in 2011 and grid connection in 2012. Energoatom was reported to have signed to buy this first one for EUR 227 million in July 2009. In June Rostechnadzor approved the environmental review for the siting license for the facility, as well as the justification of investment in it.

In August 2009 OKBM Afrikantov shipped the second reactor for this to Baltiyskiy Zavod. The assembling and acceptance tests were carried out at Nizhniy Novgorod Machine Engineering Plant (NMZ). Three companies had contributed: OKBM (development of design and technical follow-up of the manufacture and testing), Izhorskiye Zavody (manufacture of the reactor pressure vessel), and NMZ (manufacture of component parts and reactor assembling).

The larger end of the floating nuclear power plant (FNPP) range uses a pair of 325 MWe VBER-300 reactors on a 49,000 tonne barge, and a smaller one could use a single RITM-200 reactor providing 55 MWe, this being a possible successor to the KLT-40. ATETs-80 and ATETs-200 are twin-reactor cogeneration units using KLT-40 and may be floating or land-based. The former produces 85 MWe plus 120,000 m3/day of potable water. The small ABV-6 reactor is 38 MW thermal and a pair mounted on a 97-metre barge is known as Volnolom floating NPP, producing 12 MWe plus 40,000 m3/day of potable water by reverse osmosis.

As of early 2009, four floating plants were designated for northern Yakutia in connection with the Elkon uranium mining project in southern Yakutia, and in 2007 an agreement was signed with the Sakha Republic (Yakutia region) to build the first of them, using smaller ABV reactors. Five were intended for use by Gazprom for offshore oil and gas field development and for operations on the Kola peninsula near Finland and the Yamal peninsula in central Siberia. Electricity cost is expected to be much low