Nuclear Power in China

(Updated 15 February 2010)

• Mainland China has 11 nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, 20 under construction, and more about to start construction soon.
• Additional reactors are planned, including some of the world's most advanced, to give a sixfold increase in nuclear capacity to at least 60 GWe or possibly more by 2020, and then a further substantial increase to 160 GWe by 2030.
• China is rapidly becoming self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle.

Most of mainland China's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (80% from coal, 2% from oil, 1% from gas in 2006) and hydropower (15%). Two large hydro projects are recent additions: Three Gorges of 18.2 GWe and Yellow River of 15.8 GWe. Rapid growth in demand has given rise to power shortages, and the reliance on fossil fuels has led to much air pollution. The economic loss due to pollution is put by the World Bank at almost 6% of GDP.¹ In 2009 power shortages were most acute in central provinces, particularly Hubei, and in December the Central China Grid Co. posted a peak load of 94.6 GW.

Domestic electricity production in 2009 was 3643 billion kWh, 6.0% higher than the 3,450 billion kWh in 2008, which was 5.8% more than in 2007 (3,260 billion kWh) and it is expected to rise to 3,810 billion kWh in 2010. Installed capacity had grown by the end of 2009 to 874 GWe, up 10.2% on the previous year's 793 GWe, which was 11% above the previous year's 713 GWe.² Capacity growth is expected to slow, reaching about 1600 GWe in 2020. At the end of 2007, there was reported to be 145 GWe of hydro capacity, 554 GWe fossil fuel, 9 GWe nuclear and 4 GWe wind, total 713 GWe. In 2008, the country added 20.1 GWe of hydro capacity, 65.8 GWe coal-fired capacity, and 4.7 GWe wind.

These capacity increase figures are all the more remarkable considering the forced retirement of small inefficient coal-fired plants: 26 GWe of these was closed in 2009, making 60 GWe closed since 2006, cutting annual coal consumption by 69 million tonnes and annual carbon dioxide emissions by 139 Mt.

The State Grid Corporation of China's grid system is sophisticated and rapidly growing, utilising ultra high voltage (1000 kV AC and 800 kV DC). By 2020, the capacity of the UHV network is expected to be some 300 GW, of which hydropower will account for 78 GW, and wind power from the north a further significant portion. Wind capacity by 2020 is planned to be 100 GWe. At the end of 2009, China had budgeted to spend $600 billion upgrading its grid.

Among the main listed generators, Huaneng Power produced 203.5 billion kWh from its domestic plants in 2009, 10.2% up on 2008. Datang Power produced 141.9 billion kWh, 12% up on 2008. Huadian Power produced 107.5 billion kWh, 6.75% above 2008. CPI Development produced 43.9 billion kWh, 2.0% above 2008 level.

While coal is the main energy source, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistic problem – nearly half the country's rail capacity is used in transporting coal. Because of the heavy reliance on old coal-fired plant, electricity generation accounts for much of the country's air pollution, which is a strong reason to increase nuclear share. China recently overtook the USA as the world's largest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions. The US Energy Information Administration predicts that China's share in global coal-related emissions will grow by 2.7% per year, from 4.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 9.3 billion tonnes in 2030, some 52% of the projected world total. Total carbon dioxide emissions in China are projected to grow by 2.8% per year from 6.2 billion tonnes in 2006 to 11.7 billion tonnes in 2030 (or 28% of world total). In comparison, total US carbon dioxide emissions are projected to grow by 0.3% per year, from 5.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 7.7 billion tonnes in 2030.³

Nuclear power has an important role, especially in the coastal areas remote from the coalfields and where the economy is developing rapidly. Generally, nuclear plants can be built close to centres of demand, whereas suitable wind and hydro sites are remote from demand. Moves to build nuclear power commenced in 1970 and the industry has now moved to a rapid development phase. Technology has been drawn from France, Canada and Russia, with local development based largely on the French element. The latest technology acquisition has been from the USA (via Westinghouse, owned by Japan's Toshiba) and France. The Westinghouse AP1000 is the main basis of technology development in the immediate future.

The government had planned to increase nuclear generating capacity to 40 GWe by 2020 (out of a total 1000 GWe then planned), with a further 18 GWe nuclear being under construction then, requiring an average of 2 GWe per year being added. In May 2007, the National Development and Reform Commission announced that its target for nuclear generation capacity in 2030 was 160 GWe. In March 2008, the newly-formed State Energy Bureau (SEB) said that the target for 2020 should be at least 5% of electricity from nuclear power, requiring at least 50 GWe to be in operation by then. In June 2008, the China Electrical Council projected 60 GWe of nuclear capacity by 2020. In July 2009, the State Council was reported to be considering raising the 2020 target to 86 GWe installed and 18 GWe under construction.

Nuclear power reactors in mainland China

Reactor technology

China has set the following points as key elements of its nuclear energy policy:

• PWRs will be the mainstream but not sole reactor type.
• Nuclear fuel assemblies are fabricated and supplied indigenously.
• Domestic manufacturing of plant and equipment will be maximised, with self-reliance in design and project management.
• International cooperation is nevertheless encouraged.

The technology base for future reactors remains officially undefined, though two designs are currently predominant in construction plans: CPR-1000 and AP1000. Beyond them, high-temperature gas-cooled reactors and fast reactors appear to be the main priorities.

A major struggle between the established China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) pushing for indigenous technology and the small but well-connected State Nuclear Power Technology Corp (SNPTC) favouring imported technology was won by SNPTC about 2004. In particular, SNPTC proposes use of indigenized 1000+ MWe plants with advanced third-generation technology, arising from Westinghouse AP1000 designs at Sanmen and Haiyang (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants). Westinghouse has agreed to transfer technology to SNPTC over the first four AP1000 units so that SNPTC can build the following ones on its own.

In February 2006, the State Council announced that the large advanced PWR was one of two high priority projects for the next 15 years, depending on "Sino-foreign cooperation, in order to master international advanced technology on nuclear power and develop a Chinese third-generation large PWR".⁴ In September 2006, the head of the China Atomic Energy Authority said that he expected large numbers of third-generation PWR reactors derived from foreign technology to be built from about 2016, after experience is gained with the initial AP1000 units.

AP1000

The first four Westinghouse AP1000 reactors are being built at Sanmen and Haiyang. At least eight more at four sites are firmly planned after them, involving substantial technology transfer, and about 30 more are proposed to follow. The AP1000 is to be the main basis of China's move to Generation III technology. These are built from modules fabricated adjacent to each site. The timeline is 50 months from first concrete to fuel loading, then six months to grid connection (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants).

EPR

Two Areva EPR reactors are being built at Taishan, but no more appear to be proposed. (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants).

Nevertheless, in October 2008, Areva and CGNPC announced establishment of an engineering joint venture as a technology transfer vehicle for development EPR and other PWR plants in China and later abroad. The JV will be held 55% by CGNPC and other Chinese interests, and 45% by Areva. It will engineer and procure equipment for both the EPR and the CPR-1000.

CAP1400

Westinghouse announced in 2008 that it was working with SNPTC and Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) to develop jointly a passively safe larger design from the AP1000, probably of 1400 MWe capacity for large-scale deployment. This development with SNERDI opens the possibility of China itself exporting the new larger units with Westinghouse's cooperation. Then, in October 2009, SNPTC and CNNC signed an agreement to co-develop and refine the AP1000 design. In December this led to setting up a 55-45% joint venture company by SNPTC and China Huaneng Group to build and operate an initial unit of the larger design, the CAP1400, at or near Huaneng's Shidaowan site. Construction is expected to start in 2013 and SNPTC hopes to have it operating in December 2017. It may be followed by a CAP1700 design, and China will own the intellectual property rights for these two larger designs.

CNP-1000

CNNC had been working with Westinghouse and Framatome ANP (Areva NP) at SNERDI since the early 1990s to develop a Chinese standard three-loop PWR design, the CNP-1000 based on Qinshan units, with high (60 GWd/t) burn-up, 18-month refueling cycle and 20 more fuel assemblies than the French-origin units. In 1997, the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) at Chengdu became involved in the reactor design and early in 2007 SNERDI was reassigned to concentrate on the AP1000 program. CNNC has been keen to create its own brand of advanced second-generation reactor with intellectual property rights, and wanted to build two initial CNP-1000 plants at Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan near Shanghai, under the 11th Economic Plan, though the design probably would not have been ready. In early 2007, the CNP-1000 development was put on hold indefinitely, though this aborted export plans for two CNP-1000 units to Pakistan.

The China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation is involved with constructing a 300 MWe PWR unit (CNP-300) at Chasma in Pakistan – a twin to that already commissioned in 2000 and similar to Qinshan 1 – China's first indigenously-designed (by SNERDI) nuclear power plant. Qinshan phase 2 is CNP-600, a scaled-up two-loop version of the same.

CPR-1000

China Guangdong Nuclear Power's (CGNPC's) indigenous focus has been on the French-derived three-loop units such as at Lingao, without major modification, now called CPR-1000, or 'improved Chinese PWR', and designated Generation II+, with digital instrumentation and control, and 60-year design life. It has 157 fuel assemblies. However, Areva retains intellectual property rights for this, which constrains overseas sales since the Chinese would need agreement from Areva on a case by case basis, and this would be unlikely in competition with the Atmea 1 design. The CPR-1000 is being widely and quickly deployed for domestic use under CGNPC leadership. Standard construction time is 52 weeks and the unit cost is under CNY 10,000 (US$ 1500) per kilowatt. In June 2009, the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe reactor was delivered for Ling Ao Phase II, from Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co.

VVER

Russia's Atomstroyexport is general contractor and equipment provider for the Tianwan AES-91 power plants using the V-428 version of the well-proven VVER-1000 reactor of 1060 MWe capacity. The reactors incorporate Finnish safety features and Siemens-Areva instrumentation and control systems. Russia's Energoatom is responsible for maintenance from 2009. Tianwan units 3 & 4 will use the same version of the VVER-1000 reactor, and then units 5 & 6 will probably use the VVER-1200.

Protracted discussion on pricing delayed units 3 & 4. Eventually €1.3 billion was agreed for Atomstroyexport to provide 30% of the plant including nuclear island equipment (reactor, steam generator, pressurisers, primary piping etc.) and some related equipment. Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation is responsible for about 70% of the project, namely, the civil work, turbine island with equipment and related infrastructure on the site.

Candu

In September 2005, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) signed a technology development agreement with CNNC which opened the possibility of it supplying further Candu-6 reactors. AECL built the two-unit Qinshan Phase III plant on schedule and under budget and estimates that it could be replicated for 25% lower cost. Any replication would be on the basis of involving local engineering teams, not on a turnkey basis, but the technology is now well understood and the decades-old Candu-6 design would likely pose fewer problems for technology transfer than state of the art third-generation designs from Westinghouse and Areva NP. (The later Korean Candu-6 plants at Wolsong had 75% local content.) However, the agreement with CNNC – more specifically with SNERDI – looked further forward to collaboration on AECL's new ACR design later. SNERDI is now focused on AP1000 engineering and reassigned to SNPTC, so early in 2008 work on Candu fuel technologies passed to another CNNC entity: the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC).

BWR

Having left the Chinese reactor market to others, in the light of China's preference for PWR designs, GE has been commending its new boiling water reactor designs for future orders there.

HTR

In February 2006, the State Council announced that the small high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR) was the second of two high priority projects for the next 15 years. The small HTR units with pebble bed fuel were to be 200 MWe reactors, similar to that being developed in South Africa, but plans have evolved to make them twin 105 MWe units driving a single steam turbine (see Shidaowan project below, and Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle).

Fast neutron reactor

Longer-term, fast neutron reactors (FNR) are seen as the main technology, and CNNC expects the FNR to become predominant by mid century. A 65 MWt fast neutron reactor - CEFR - is under construction near Beijing and due to achieve criticality in 2009. Further developments of this were expected to follow (see Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle).

However, in October 2009 a high-level agreement with Russia confirmed earlier indications that China would opt for the BN-800 technology instead of indigenous development. The 880 MWe gross BN-800 reactor being built by OKBM Afrikantov at Beloyarsk in Siberia is the reference design, and the first one in China is planned to start construction in August 2011, after a site is confirmed (Sanming, Fujian is tentative).

Embarking upon Generation III plants

In September 2004, the State Council approved plans for two units at Sanmen, followed by six units at Yangjiang (two to start with), these to be 1000 or 1500 MWe reactors pioneering Generation III nuclear technology from overseas. The Sanmen (in Zhejiang province) and Yangjiang (in Guangdong province) reactors were subject to an open bidding process for third-generation designs, with contracts to be awarded in mid-2006 – in the event, mid-2007 – putting them clearly into the 11th Five Year Plan.

Bidding process

This open bidding process underlined the extent to which China is making itself part of the world nuclear industry, and yet at first remaining somewhat ambivalent about that.

Three bids were received for the four Sanmen and Yangjiang reactors: from Westinghouse (AP1000 reactors), Areva (EPR) and Atomstroyexport (VVER-1000 model V-392). The State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (SNPTC), directly under China's State Council, was in charge of technology selection for new plants being bid from overseas.

The USA, French and Russian governments were reported to be giving firm support as finance and support arrangements were put in place. The US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees for the Westinghouse bid, and the French Coface company was expected similarly to finance Areva for its bid. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave approval for Westinghouse to export equipment and engineering services as well as the initial fuel load and one replacement for the four units. Bids for both two-unit plants were received in Beijing on behalf of the two customers: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co (CGNPC) for Yangjiang, and China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) for Sanmen. Bids were for the nuclear portion of each plant only, the turbine tenders to be called for subsequently.

Bids were assessed on level of technology, the degree to which it was proven, price, local content, and technology transfer - which apparently became the major factor. Areva and Westinghouse were short-listed. However, the decision on reactor type was delayed, and came under review at the highest political level, with CNNC evidently pushing for the use of indigenous second-generation designs for both sites.

In December 2006, 22 months after the bids were submitted and after several revisions to them, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for the four units – two each at Sanmen and Yangjiang. Early in 2007, the two units planned for the Yangjiang site were switched to Haiyang in the more northerly Shandong province, making way for two EPR units Areva was in negotiations to build at Yangjiang. Later in 2007, plans for the EPRs under consideration for Yangjiang were transferred to another Guangdong site – Taishan – since there was pressure to build a lot of capacity quickly at Yangjiang.

Sanmen 1&2 and Haiyang 1&2

A framework agreement was signed at the end of February 2007 between Westinghouse and SNPTC specifying Haiyang and Sanmen for the four AP1000 units. In July 2007, Westinghouse, along with consortium partner Shaw, signed the contracts with SNPTC, Sanmen Nuclear Power Company (51% owned by CNNC), Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (61% owned by CPI) and China National Technical Import & Export Corporation (CNTIC) for four AP1000 reactors. Specific terms were not disclosed but the figure of $5.3 billion for the first two was widely quoted.

Sanmen site works commenced in February 2008 and full construction on Sanmen 1 – the world's first AP1000 unit – officially commenced on 19 April 2009. The reactor is expected to begin operation in August 2013 with the second about one year later. First concrete at Haiyang 1 was in September 2009. The Haiyang units are expected to commence operation in 2014 and 2015.

AP1000 equipment contracts

In April 2007, Westinghouse signed a $350 million contract with Doosan Heavy Industries in Korea for two pressure vessels and four steam generators for Sanmen 1 and Haiyang 1. The pressure vessels for the other two units are being made by Chinese manufacturers: China First Heavy Industries (CFHI, also known as YiZhong) for Sanmen 2 and Shanghai Electric Group Corporation (SEC) for Haiyang 2. Steam generators for Sanmen 2 and Haiyang 2 are being manufactured by Harbin Power Equipment Co., Ltd. (HPEC) and SEC, respectively.

All four steam turbine generators are being manufactured by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). In a $521 million deal, Sanmen Nuclear Power ordered two turbine generator packages from MHI at the end of September 2007, with Shandong Nuclear Power ordering another two early in 2008. MHI's Takasago Machinery Works is manufacturing the turbines, including rotors and blades. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation is supplying the generators and HPEC, partnering with MHI, is responsible for turbine casings, piping and associated facilities. The turbines will reportedly boost the capacity of the reactors from their designed 1175 MWe to 1250 MWe gross.

Taishan 1&2

In February 2007, EDF entered a cooperation agreement with CGNPC to build and operate a two-unit EPR power station at Yangjiang in Guangdong province. This deal was not expected to involve the technology transfer which is central to the Westinghouse contracts, since the EPR has multiple redundant safety systems rather than passive safety systems and is seen to be more complex and expensive, hence of less long-term interest to China. However, negotiations with Areva and EDF dragged on and in August 2007 it was announced that the EPR project had been shuffled to Taishan (in Guangdong) so that six CPR-1000 units previously planned for that site could be built at Yangjiang as soon as possible.

At a November 2007 ceremony attended by Chinese president Hu Jintao and French president Nicolas Sarkozy in Beijing's Great Hall of the People, Areva initialed an €8 billion contract with CGNPC for the two EPRs at Taishan plus supply of fuel to 2026 and other materials and services for them. The whole project, including fuel supply, totals €8 billion, of which the nuclear reactors themselves were reported to be about €3.5 billion. Steam turbine generators costing €300 million are included in the larger sum. The Guangdong Development Commission quotes the total investment in both units as CNY 49.85 billion ($7.3 billion). The joint venture partners will put up CNY 16.45 billion and the balance will be borrowed with guarantee from the Central Bank of France. French export credits for the project are reported as EUR 1.7 billion ($2.4 billion), covering purchase of equipment such as pressure vessel and steam generators from French suppliers.

In August 2008, EDF and CGNPC signed the final agreements for the creation of Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company Limited (TNPC). EDF will hold 30% of TNPC for a period of 50 years (the maximum period permitted for a joint venture in China), CGNPC 70%. TNPC will oversee the building, then own and operate the plant. EDF will pay €600 to 800 million over four years for this share, subject to approval by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Commerce. (EDF is project manager and architect for the Flamanville 3 EPR project in France, and this initiative consolidates its change in corporate strategy outside France as expressed already in the UniStar joint venture set up in mid-2007 with Constellation in USA to build, own and operate a fleet of US-EPRs in North America.)

CGNPC subsidiary China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. and Areva also set up an engineering joint venture Wecan, in December 2009. This is 55% CGNPC and 45% Areva, is based in Shenzen, and builds on Areva's European experience

CGNPC authorised construction in July 2008 and first concrete was poured on 28 October 2009, though the official inauguration ceremony was not until 21 December. The first unit should be completed at the end of 2013 and the second in 2015. Areva has begun fabrication of major components for both units. The Arabelle steam turbines and 1750 MWe generators are being purchased separately from Alstom and Dongfang Electric Co.

Nuclear growth

In 2007, nuclear power plants provided 62.86 billion kWh - 2.3% of total - and there is now 8.6 GWe (net) installed. The first two nuclear power plants in mainland China were at Daya Bay near Hong Kong and Qinshan, south of Shanghai, with construction starting in the mid-1980s.

China's concerted nuclear expansion began with the National Development and Reform Commission's (NDRC's) Tenth Economic Plan for the years 2001-2005. (China's first economic plan was in 1953 and began China's centrally planned industrialization under Mao Zedong.) The Eleventh Economic Plan for the years 2006-2010 set even more ambitious goals than the Tenth for new nuclear plant construction, and marked a watershed in China's commitment to third-generation reactors, such as the Sanmen plant in Zhejiang province and Haiyang plant in Shandong province (see section above on Reactor technology).

The Tenth Five-Year Plan incorporated the construction of eight nuclear power plants, though the timeline for contracts was extended, putting the last two into the 11th plan. In May 2004, the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) applied to build eight (four pairs) of new reactors, four of them for China Guangdong Nuclear Power Company (CGNPC):

• Lingao Phase II (also known as Lingdong) in Guangdong province, to duplicate the CPR-1000 Lingao Phase I nuclear plant.
• Qinshan in Zhejiang province, units 3 and 4 of Phase II, duplicating the indigenous CNP-600 units 1&2, upgraded to 650 MWe.

And the following, which slipped to the Eleventh Plan:

• Sanmen in Zhejiang province, using advanced foreign technology and design.
• Yangjiang (originally) in Guangdong province, 500 km west of Hong Kong, also using advanced foreign technology.

In July 2004, the State Council formally approved the two CPR-1000 units at Lingao. The two CNP-600 Qinshan Phase II units 3&4 of 650 MWe were subsequently approved and CNNC announced that the next two there would be 1000 MWe indigenous units (now seen as very unlikely or much delayed, and in effect Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan 1, takes over this role).

The 11th Five Year Plan (2006-10) has firmer environmental goals than previously, including reduction of 20% in the amount of energy required per unit of GDP, i.e. 4% reduction per year.

As well as the Sanmen and Yangjiang projects slipped from the 10th Plan, nuclear power developments originally proposed in the 11th Plan included:

• Four CPR-1000 units at Hongyanhe, Liaoning province in the northeast.
• Two 1000 MWe units at Haiyang, Shandong province (now 1100 MWe AP1000).
• Two 1000 MWe units at Fuqing, Fujian province.
• Two units at Hongshiding, Rushan city, Shandong province.
• Two units at Lufeng in eastern Guangdong province.
• Two units at Taishan in southern Guangdong.

In 2007, it was announced that three state-owned corporations had been approved to own and operate nuclear power plants: CNNC, CGNPC and China Power Investment Corporation (CPI). Any other public or private companies are to have minority shares in new projects. CGNPC is increasingly preeminent in actual nuclear power plants.

By the end of the 12th Five Year Plan (2011-15) some 25 GWe is planned to be operational, and 45 GWe by the end of the 13th Five Year Plan.

More than 16 provinces, regions and municipalities have announced intentions to build nuclear power plants in the 12th Five Year Plan 2011-15. These include Henan and Sichuan, as well as those listed in the Further nuclear power units proposed Table below - most of which have preliminary project approval by the central government but are not necessarily scheduled for construction. Provinces put together firm proposals with reactor vendors by 2008 and submitted them to the central government's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) for approval during 2009. NRDC consideration is via the new National Energy Administration (NEA). A great many proposals were received, many of which will be deferred to the 13th Plan.

In its 2007 Annual Report, CPI said that at the end of the 12th Five Year Plan it expected to have 100 GWe of controllable installed capacity including three nuclear power bases: Liaoning, Shandong and inland.⁵

The complex ownership structure of Chinese nuclear plants is described in Appendix 1: Government Structure and Ownership, and China's considerable heavy engineering and manufacturing capacity is detailed in the information page on Heavy Manufacturing of Power Plants.

Operating nuclear plants

Operating nuclear reactors

Units	Province	Net capacity (each)	Type	Operator	Commercial operation
Daya Bay 1&2	Guangdong	944 MWe	PWR	CGNPC	1994
Qinshan Phase I	Zhejiang	279 MWe	PWR	CNNC	April 1994
Qinshan Phase II, 1&2	Zhejiang	610 MWe	PWR	CNNC	2002, 2004
Qinshan Phase III, 1&2	Zhejiang	665 MWe	PHWR	CNNC	2002, 2003
Lingao 1&2	Guangdong	935 MWe	PWR	CGNPC	2002, 2003
Tianwan 1&2	Jiangsu	1000 MWe	PWR (VVER)	CNNC	2007
Total: 11		8587 MWe

Daya Bay, Lingao

The Daya Bay reactors in Guangdong province are standard 3-loop French PWR units supplied by Framatome, with GEC-Alstom turbines. Electricite de France (EDF) managed construction, starting August 1987, with the participation of Chinese engineers. Commercial operation of the two units was in February and May 1994. There were long outages in 1994-96 when Framatome had to replace major components. Reactor vessel heads were replaced in 2004. The plant produces about 13 billion kWh per year, with 70% transmitted to Hong Kong and 30% to Guangdong.

The Lingao Phase I reactors are virtually replicas of adjacent Daya Bay. Construction started in May 1997 and Lingao 1 started up in February 2002 entering commercial operation in May. Lingao 2 was connected to the grid about September 2002 and entered commercial operation in January 2003. The two Lingao reactors use French technology supplied by Framatome, but with 30% localisation. They are now designated CPR-1000. They are reported to have cost $1800 per kilowatt.

Daya Bay and Lingao together comprise the 'Daya Bay nuclear power base' under the common management of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Operations & Management Co (DNMC), part of China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC). Framatome is now Areva NP.

Qinshan

Qinshan 1 in Zhejiang province 100 km southwest of Shanghai, is China's first indigenously-designed and constructed nuclear power plant (though with the pressure vessel supplied by Mitsubishi, Japan). Design of the 300 MWe PWR was by the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI). Construction work spanned 6.5 years from March 1985, with first grid connection in December 1991. It was shut down for 14 months for major repairs from mid-1998.

In October 2007, Qinshan 1 was shut down for a major upgrade. The entire instrument and control system was replaced, along with the reactor pressure vessel head and control rod drives. Areva NP supervised the work, which is likely to lead to life extension beyond the original 30 years.

Qinshan Phase II units 1&2 are locally-designed and constructed 2-loop PWR reactors, scaled up from Qinshan 1, and designated CNP-600. Unit 1 started up at the end of 2001 and entered commercial operation in April 2002. Unit 2 started up in March 2004, with commercial operation in May 2004.

Qinshan Phase III units 1&2 use the Candu 6 pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) technology, with Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) being the main contractor of the project on a turnkey basis. Construction began in 1997 and unit 1 started up in September 2002 and unit 2 in April 2003. They are each about 665 MWe net.

Tianwan

Tianwan Phase I at at Lianyungang city in Jiangsu province is a Russian AES-91 power plant (with two 1060 MWe VVER reactors) constructed under a cooperation agreement between China and Russia - the largest such project ever. The cost is reported to be $3.2 billion, with China contributing $1.8 billion of this. Completion was delayed due to corrosion in the steam generators which resulted in some tubes having to be plugged with a net loss of capacity of about 2%. The first unit was grid connected in May 2006 and put into commercial operation in June 2007. The second was grid connected in May 2007, with commercial operation in August 2007. Design life is 40 years.

Nuclear plants under construction and planned

China Guangdong Nuclear Power (CGNPC) expects to spend $ 9.5 billion on its Lingao Phase II, Yangjiang and Taishan nuclear power plants by 2010 and to have 6000 MWe on line by then, with 12,000 MWe under construction. Work is under way at all these sites and also at Ningde. It is also making efforts to start on the Lufeng plant at Shanwei in Guangdong and Wuhu in Anhui province, but awaits NDRC approval. It is expecting to have 34,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020, providing 20% of the province's power, and 16,000 MWe under construction then. From 2010 it expects to commission three units per year and, from 2015, four units per year. CGNPC is also, due to State Council policy, committed to developing significant wind capacity through CGN Wind Co. It projects a total of 500 MWe by 2020.

China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group plans to 2020, as of about 2005

In 2006, China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) signed agreements in Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong and Hunan provinces and six cities in Hunan, Anhui and Guangdong provinces to develop nuclear projects. CNNC has pointed out that there is room for 30 GWe of further capacity by 2020 in coastal areas and maybe more inland such as Hunan "where conditions permit". In October 2007, CNNC's list of projects included Chuanshan (Jiangsu province), Jiyang (Anhui), Hebao Island (Guangdong), Shizu (Chongqing), Xudabao (Liaoning) and Qiaofushan (Hebei) amongst others.

CNNC said in December 2006 that it planned to build four 1000 MWe units at Heyuan, inland in northeast Guangdong, at a cost of US$ 6.4 billion, but no timing was mentioned.

In mid-2009, Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Co – a subsidiary of China Huaneng Group (CHNG) – said it had opened an office in the city of Yingtan in China's inland Jiangxi province for the development of a new nuclear power plant in the area. This is one of five sites for nuclear plants after Rongcheng which CHNG was reported in May to have selected: Cangnan in Zhejiang province, Huaining in Anhui, Xuyi in Jiangsu, and Xiapu in Fujian being the others.

In November 2007, the NDRC said that the government had budgeted CNY 450 billion ($65 billion) to build nuclear power capacity by 2020. It had selected 13 coastal sites to accommodate 59.46 GWe.

In December 2009 CGNPC is reported to have signed a CNY 5.3 billion ($776 million) nuclear island installation contract with China Nuclear Power Engineering Group Co (CNPEC), apparently covering Ningde 3&4 in Fujian, Yangjiang 3&4 in Guangdong, Fangchenggang 1&2 in Guangxi, and Taishan 1&2 in Guangdong. This is the largest contract of its kind in China.

Nuclear reactors under construction and planned

Plant	Province	MWe gross	Reactor model	Project control	Construction start	Operation
Lingao Phase II units 1&2	Guangdong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	12/05, 5/06	12/10, 8/11
Qinshan Phase II units 3&4	Zhejiang	2x650	CNP-600	CNNC	4/06, 1/07	2011, 2012
Hongyanhe units 1-4	Liaoning	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	8/07, 4/08, 3/09, 8/09	10/12, 2014
Ningde units 1-4	Fujian	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	2/08, 11/08, 1/10, 15/7/10	12/12 - 2015
Fuqing units 1&2	Fujian	2x1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	11/08, 6/09	10/13, 8/14
Yangjiang units 1-4	Guangdong	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	12/08, 8/09, 15/7/10, 15/3/11	8/13 - 2016
Fangjiashan units 1&2	Zhejiang	2x1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	12/08, 7/09	12/13, 10/14
Sanmen units 1&2	Zhejiang	2x1250	AP1000	CNNC	3/09, 12/09	11/13, 9/14
Haiyang units 1&2	Shandong	2x1250	AP1000	CPI	9/09, 31/7/10	5/14, 3/15
Taishan units 1&2	Guangdong	2x1700	EPR	CGNPC	10/09, 1/7/10	12/13, 11/14
Shandong Shidaowan	Shandong	210	HTR-PM	Huaneng	1/10?	2013 or 2014
Fangchenggang/Hongsha units 1&2	Guangxi	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	early 2010	2014, ?
Fuqing units 3-6	Fujian	4x1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	2010, ?
Changjiang units 1&2	Hainan	2x650	CNP-600	CNNC or Huaneng	First half 2010	2014, 2015
Tianwan units 3&4	Jiangsu	2x1060	VVER-1000 (AES-91)	CNNC	10/2010
Hongshiding (Rushan) units 1&2	Shandong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CNEC/CNNC	Deferred from 2009?	2015
Ningde units 5&6	Fujian	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC
Dafan, Xianning units 1&2	Hubei	2x1250	AP1000	CGNPC	late 2010
Xiaomoshan (Jiulongshan) units 1&2	Hunan	2x1250	AP1000	CPI	2010?	4/2015-2018
Taohuajiang units 1-4	Hunan	4x1250	AP1000	CNNC	9/2010	2015
Pengze units 1&2	Jiangxi	2x1250	AP1000	CPI	2010	2013-14
Haiyang units 3&4	Shandong	2x1250	AP1000	CPI	2010?
Tianwan units 5&6	Jiangsu	2x1200	VVER-1200	CNNC	10/2010
Wuhu units 1&2	Anhui	2x1250	AP1000	CGNPC	12/2011	8/2016
Total: 57		63,130 MWe

Where construction has started, the dates are marked in bold. Those here not under construction are marked as 'planned' in the WNA reactor table when it updated. At 9 February 2010, 21 under construction: 22,960 MWe; 36 planned: 40,510 MWe
Fangjiashan is sometimes shown as a development of Qinshan Phase I.

Further nuclear power units proposed

Plant	Province	MWe gross	Expected model	Project control	Construction	Start up
Zhexi/Longyou units 1&2	Zhejiang	2x1250	AP1000	CNNC	2011?
Lianyungang units 1&2	Jiangsu	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC
Sanming units 1&2	Fujian	2x800	BN-800	CNNC	8/2011
Lufeng /Tianwei units 1&2	Guangdong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC
Tianwan units 7&8	Jiangsu	2x1200	VVER-1200 (AES-2006)	CNNC
Hongyanhe units 5&6	Liaoning	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC
Yangjiang units 5&6	Guangdong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC		2017
Dafan, Xianning units 3&4	Hubei	2x1250	AP1000	CGNPC
Zhangzhou units 1&2	Fujian	2x1250	AP1000	China Guodian
Shidaowan	Shandong	4x1400?	CAP-1400	Huaneng	4/2013	12/2017
Shandong Shidaowan	Shandong	18x210	HTR-PM	Huaneng
Haiyang units 5&6	Shandong	2x1250	AP1000	CPI
Xiaomoshan units 3-6	Hunan	4x1250	AP1000	CPI
Xudabao	Liaoning	2?		CNNC
Lufeng units 3-6	Guangdong	4x1000		CGNPC
Fangchenggang (Hongsha) units 3-6	Guangxi	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC
Yingtan	Jianxi	2?		Huaneng
Nanyang units 1-6	Henan	6x?		CNNC
Xinyang units 1-4	Henan	4x1080	CPR-1000?	CGNPC?
Sanba/Nanchun/Nanchong	Sichuan	4x1000		CGNPC
Subtotal: 70 units		60,000+ MWe
Shaoguan units 1-4	Guangdong	4x1250	AP1000	CGNPC
Jiyang	Anhui	4x?		CNNC
Sanmen units 3-6	Zhejiang	4x1250	AP1000	CNNC
Cangnan	Zheijiang	6x1000		CGNPC/Huaneng
Zhexi /Longyou units 3&4	Zhejiang	2x1250	AP1000	CNNC
Haijia /Haifeng units 1&2	Guangdong	2x1000?		CGNPC
Jinzhouwan units 1&2	Liaoning	2x1000
Hengyang/Changde/Chenzhou units 1-4	Hunan	4x1000?		CNNC
Fuling units 1-4	Chongqing	4x1250	AP1000	CPI
Jinggu units 1-4	Jilin	4x1250	AP1000	CPI	2013?
Wuhu units 3-4	Anhui	2x1250	AP1000	CGNPC
Pengze units 3&4	Jiangxi	2x1100	AP1000	CPI
Heyuan /Jieyang units 1-4	Guangdong	4x1000		CNNC?
Pingnan/Baisha units 1-4	Guangxi	4x1250	AP1000	CPI
Hengren units 1-4	Liaoning	4x1250	AP1000	CPI
Lanzhou	Gansu	2?		CNNC
Xiangtan	Hunan	4x1250	AP1000	Huadian
Donggang	Liaoning	6x1000		Huadian
Yianjiashan/Wanan	Jiangxi			CNNC
Shizu	Chongqing			CNNC
Qiaofushan	Hebai			CNNC
Songzi/Dafan 5&6	Hubei			CGNPC
Hebaodao	Guangdong			CNNC
Subtotal: about 76 units		34x1250 24x1000 c.18x?? Approx 84,000 MWe
Total: about 150		150,000+ MWe

All PWR except Shidaowan HTR-PM. Some of these entries are based on sketchy information. For WNA reactor table, 80% of numbers and capacity from this table are listed as 'Proposed'<